Sorry its been so long since my last post but here is a post about something that is definitely on my heart and mind these days... marriage!
The origins of marriage predate written record and are thus relatively unknown. Many people point to the Bible for its origin with God creating Eve specially for Adam in the Garden of Eden. Matthew 19:4-6 basically stating that man and woman would leave their families and become one through marriage. Being joined before God they would be inseparable by works of man.
Marriage in its origins was not about love or romance but it was about alliance. Families were strategic about who their children would marry. At times marriages created peace between warring tribes and at other times marriage might gain a family more favor by marrying above their class. Marriage was a tool developed to help the family in some way. Louis Demont (1953) noted that Native American tribes such as the Iroquois, Dravidians, and Australian aborigines alike all used marriage as a way to form alliance bonds with other families (Kohler 1975: 39). Bonded linguistic systems within Native American tribes such as the Crow-Omaha language show the end result of long formed alliance marriages (Kohler 1975: 257). Arranged marriages were considered to be the antithesis of a blood-feud. Meaning that when two tribes or families were in blood-feud and this feud or war was depleting resources to the point of degradation for both parties the basic solution would be an alliance (McLennan 1865:104-105). These institutionalized alliances could be the creation of new tribes or groups or even possibly new nations.
Polyandry and Polygyny both following under polygamy were the ruling forms of marriage at its origin. Polyandry is when a woman marries more than one husband, this is typically found in a matriarchal society. Polygyny is when a man marries more than one wife found in patriarchal societies. These forms of marriage had nothing to do with promiscuity or a carnal desire to mate with more than one woman but was more practically a way to deal with unfortunate disparities between gender populations or at times rank preferences within the society.
It has only been within the last 250 years or so that love and romance have become factors in a marriage, and still to this day that is not the number one reason for marriage in all cases. However, in many arranged marriages today, such as found in India, China, Singapore and South Korea, young adults tend to get the chance to meet and learn about their soon to betrothed fairly in advance. At times in some families, the potential couple even has some say in whether the arranged marriage is a good one that will last. There are many facets and differences when you look at marriage today to days past but I hope you all enjoyed this brief glance at marriage.
References:
Demont, Louis. 1953.
Hirsch, Jennifer S. and Wardlow, Holly. 2009. Modern Loves: The Anthropology of Romantic Courtship and Companionate Marriage. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Kohler, Josef. 1975. On the Prehistory of Marriage. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Have research will travel: The mad scribblings of a vagabond anthropologist
Wednesday, November 20, 2013
Monday, July 29, 2013
Anthropology huh? What are you gonna do with that?
This probably should have been one of my first posts but I think now that we talked about some of the interesting facets of anthropology now would be a good time to talk about the realities of pursuing a degree in the field. I honestly can't tell you how many times I've heard someone say the title of this post to me. "Anthropology huh? What are you gonna do with that?" The most memorable time I heard it was actually the first time, when my dad asked me that question.
At first I had a wonderful way of answering: I would look at the ground, shuffle my feet, put a hand on top of my head and say, "Well... I guess I'll get my doctorate and become a professor. Hopefully write a book..." I had no idea what a degree in anthropology would do for me and I think this is a common road block for people interested in anthropology.
The reality is actually far different than what it seems. A degree in anthropology can really take you anywhere and that is because what you learn while pursuing a degree is far more multi-faceted than you can imagine. In the four years getting my Bachelor's and three working on my Master's I have received a hodge podge of important life skills that could really help a person attain almost any job.
Anthropology and research: To start with we should definitely speak on research and writing. Without any doubt these are two skills you will acquire in an anthropology program. Your writing will develop and become more and more "academic" but if you're lucky you will also learn how to capture the stories behind the science and the adventure behind the observation. An anthropologist doesn't just detail the facts and figures about a culture he/she is studying but one would also be detailing their own personal journey through the observing and being a part of the culture studied. For more on this I think reading some of the amazing descriptive works of Clifford Geertz would be in order.
Anthropology and philanthropy and fundraising: Continuing from above the needs for money mean that sometimes you need to hold events for raising funds. You learn how to partner with others within a university or possibly university to try and attain private funding. Also at times you find yourself working for free and working for a loss. An important enough project might have you doing charity work.
Anthropology and journalism: The ideal goal for any work of anthropology would be publishing. In this you become a reporter, reporting on the things that you observed in the field. You are the eyes, ears, etc. for the world who doesn't get to see the things that you have seen. You could even seek employment with some of the sources for getting anthropological information out such as travel, history or natural magazines or television.
Anthropology and art: One thing that has always been a focus for me has been sketching what I've seen or what my peers have told me about. For both archaeology and anthropology having a working knowledge of art is a must. Whether you are trying to describe a particular ceramic piece or if you are sketching out a settlement area art is a necessity for the aspiring anthropologist. This is not to say that you need to be an artist to be an anthropologist but having some theory and technique will certainly help.
Anthropology and nature: Zoology is an important aspect of archaeology. One of my professors in college was an expert at knowing the tiny bones that make up a wide variety of fauna. This is an incredibly important piece to the puzzle. Also many anthropologists get their entry level work done working in parks around the country. A great way to enjoy the outdoors and make a buck or two along the way.
Anthropology and human nature: The reason I became an anthropologist in the first place is because while working on a degree in Criminal Justice I had a professor ask me what I wanted to do with my degree. I answered that I wanted to join the FBI or the CIA. He smiled and said a criminal justice degree might get you there but if you want to stand out when applying get a degree that really shows you understand human nature and culture...get a degree in Anthropology. I think this interaction really showed me the variety of opportunities that working in the field of anthropology can provide.
So if you decide that this is the career path for you when the first person inevitably asks you "Anthropology huh? What are you gonna do with that?" you can confidently tell them that "the sky's the limit". Feel free to comment with more "Anthropology and..." to help fill in more details on what you can do with a degree in anthropology.
Further Reading:
Geertz, Clifford. 1995. After the fact: 2 Countries, Four Cultures, One Anthropologist. Cambridge: University of Harvard Press. Call Number: GN21.G44.A3
At first I had a wonderful way of answering: I would look at the ground, shuffle my feet, put a hand on top of my head and say, "Well... I guess I'll get my doctorate and become a professor. Hopefully write a book..." I had no idea what a degree in anthropology would do for me and I think this is a common road block for people interested in anthropology.
The reality is actually far different than what it seems. A degree in anthropology can really take you anywhere and that is because what you learn while pursuing a degree is far more multi-faceted than you can imagine. In the four years getting my Bachelor's and three working on my Master's I have received a hodge podge of important life skills that could really help a person attain almost any job.
Anthropology and research: To start with we should definitely speak on research and writing. Without any doubt these are two skills you will acquire in an anthropology program. Your writing will develop and become more and more "academic" but if you're lucky you will also learn how to capture the stories behind the science and the adventure behind the observation. An anthropologist doesn't just detail the facts and figures about a culture he/she is studying but one would also be detailing their own personal journey through the observing and being a part of the culture studied. For more on this I think reading some of the amazing descriptive works of Clifford Geertz would be in order.
www.biography.com
Anthropology and business: An anthropologist learns very quickly that they are dependent on financial resources to accomplish any research in the world. With the economic situation today it becomes very hard and competitive to seek out government or university research grants. You need to understand the dollars and cents of a project and how you are going to sustain yourself and perhaps a team while out in the field, in the laboratory, or while writing up for publishing.Anthropology and philanthropy and fundraising: Continuing from above the needs for money mean that sometimes you need to hold events for raising funds. You learn how to partner with others within a university or possibly university to try and attain private funding. Also at times you find yourself working for free and working for a loss. An important enough project might have you doing charity work.
Anthropology and journalism: The ideal goal for any work of anthropology would be publishing. In this you become a reporter, reporting on the things that you observed in the field. You are the eyes, ears, etc. for the world who doesn't get to see the things that you have seen. You could even seek employment with some of the sources for getting anthropological information out such as travel, history or natural magazines or television.
A drawing created by Anthony Saturno from a cultural resource encyclopedia.
Anthropology and human nature: The reason I became an anthropologist in the first place is because while working on a degree in Criminal Justice I had a professor ask me what I wanted to do with my degree. I answered that I wanted to join the FBI or the CIA. He smiled and said a criminal justice degree might get you there but if you want to stand out when applying get a degree that really shows you understand human nature and culture...get a degree in Anthropology. I think this interaction really showed me the variety of opportunities that working in the field of anthropology can provide.
So if you decide that this is the career path for you when the first person inevitably asks you "Anthropology huh? What are you gonna do with that?" you can confidently tell them that "the sky's the limit". Feel free to comment with more "Anthropology and..." to help fill in more details on what you can do with a degree in anthropology.
Further Reading:
Geertz, Clifford. 1995. After the fact: 2 Countries, Four Cultures, One Anthropologist. Cambridge: University of Harvard Press. Call Number: GN21.G44.A3
Tuesday, July 9, 2013
Happy Belated Independence Day America!
So today I wanted to take a bit of a break and just talk about independence. I read this great article from the Huffington Post about independence around the world.
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/07/02/independence-day-celebrat_n_222582.html
The article talks about the post-colonial world and how so many nations have a day to commemorate as their day of independence. Like us most countries claim independence from England which has been the record holder for most colonies owned since the days of exploration. Pakistan celebrates their break from England in a similar fashion to America, its all about fireworks and giving glory to their flag. They celebrate their independence on August 14th every year since 1910.
Similarly is India who celebrates their independence the next day on August the 15th. Their Prime Minister raises the flag over the Red Fort and there are many celebrations in the capital, New Dehli.
Most of the time when we think of the colonial world we think of Africa, Asia and the Americas but even Europe's map looked different at the beginning of the 20th century. Finland gained their independence from Russia on December 6th 1917 and celebrates by showing the film "The Unknown Soldier" based on a book of the same name by Väinö Linna.
Further Reading:
A pretty comprehensive list of national days off:
http://www.mapsofworld.com/national-day.html
The original Huffington Post article:
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/07/02/independence-day-celebrat_n_222582.html
Tuesday, June 18, 2013
We built this city on rock and roads
For many people when they think about Cambodia they think of Angkor Wat, one of the most famous places in the world today. This temple is a tourist hotspot and has many times been added into more modern lists of "Wonders of the World". What many people don't know is that this amazing temple is one of thousands grouped into the temples of Angkor.
Modern technology is showing us that these thousand dots that scatter across the map of Cambodia may not be just random lone temples but it is now being proven that they are part of a vast ancient city that predates Angkor Wat. The temples of Angkor date from between 800-1400AD, this is widely known as the time period of the Hindu-Buddhist Khmer Empire. An empire whose rich history is still being uncovered today but whose art and architecture are among the most impressive throughout history. A empire that stretched from Thailand, Malaysia, Cambodia, Vietnam, Laos and even into southern China.
Lidar is a new form of remote sensing that uses aerial imaging to be able to detect inconsistencies in topography, soil coloration and other features. It uses laser technology to reflect and analyze light emissions from great heights. They are almost always on a helicopter mount. The analysis can be fed into GIS systems and items discovered can be uploaded into GPS systems. Other discoveries have been found using Lidar in Canada, the US, and Honduras.
Lidar can't do all the work though and a lot of leg work on the ground is necessary. Cambodia is predominantly harsh, tropical jungles and the work on the ground is very taxing and time consuming. However, already they have discovered roadways, canals and possibly undiscovered temples. Temple discovery has been helped by the knowledge that the Khmer empire built temples out of stone brick work while all other buildings were more simple wood constructions. The other exciting notion is that of the hidden aspect of these treasured buildings. The jungle overgrowth has protected these sites from the naked eye meaning that most all finds using Lidar technology will be untouched, unlooted finds.
References:
English Heritage. 2010. The Light Fantastic: Using Airborne Lidar in Archaeological Survey. David M. Jones, Ed. Swindon, England: English Heritage.
Jessup, Helen Ibbitson. 2010. Chapter 3: South-East Asia: The Khmer 802-1566. In The Great Empires of Asia. Jim Masselos, Ed. Pp. 72-103. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Neuman, Scott. 2013. Archaeologists Discover Lost City in Cambodian Jungle. NPR. http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2013/06/14/191727408/archaeologists-discover-lost-city-in-cambodian-jungle. Accessed June 18, 2013.
Places to Visit:
Angkor Wat: http://www.visit-angkor.org/
Personal Photo
Today a team of archaeologists from University of Sydney, led by Director Damian Evans are using Lidar to discover the roads that linked the temples of Angkor together in a city named Mahendraparvata. A city named from Sanskrit meaning "the mountain of the great Indra". It's size has yet to be determined due to the time and money it takes to do this kind of archaeological surveying. It has taken the team about ten years just to get this far with the uncovering of the city. What they do know is that this city even predates the temples themselves being more than 1200 years old.Lidar is a new form of remote sensing that uses aerial imaging to be able to detect inconsistencies in topography, soil coloration and other features. It uses laser technology to reflect and analyze light emissions from great heights. They are almost always on a helicopter mount. The analysis can be fed into GIS systems and items discovered can be uploaded into GPS systems. Other discoveries have been found using Lidar in Canada, the US, and Honduras.
Lidar can't do all the work though and a lot of leg work on the ground is necessary. Cambodia is predominantly harsh, tropical jungles and the work on the ground is very taxing and time consuming. However, already they have discovered roadways, canals and possibly undiscovered temples. Temple discovery has been helped by the knowledge that the Khmer empire built temples out of stone brick work while all other buildings were more simple wood constructions. The other exciting notion is that of the hidden aspect of these treasured buildings. The jungle overgrowth has protected these sites from the naked eye meaning that most all finds using Lidar technology will be untouched, unlooted finds.
Personal Photo
Damian Evans and his crew are very excited to continue their work and determine how big this ancient city really is, how old it really is, and how many untampered temples they may find. Also it is unclear if all the structures will be contemporaneous with the style of Angkor or if a as yet to be discovered older artistic style might be found as they uncover older roadways and temples. References:
English Heritage. 2010. The Light Fantastic: Using Airborne Lidar in Archaeological Survey. David M. Jones, Ed. Swindon, England: English Heritage.
Jessup, Helen Ibbitson. 2010. Chapter 3: South-East Asia: The Khmer 802-1566. In The Great Empires of Asia. Jim Masselos, Ed. Pp. 72-103. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Neuman, Scott. 2013. Archaeologists Discover Lost City in Cambodian Jungle. NPR. http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2013/06/14/191727408/archaeologists-discover-lost-city-in-cambodian-jungle. Accessed June 18, 2013.
Places to Visit:
Angkor Wat: http://www.visit-angkor.org/
Friday, June 7, 2013
Back in my day...
So. today I decided to go and dig up some ancient texts from the library to use as a resource. The ancient text I'm referring to is known as an encyclopedia. A long, long time ago (not in a galaxy far away) before computers and the internet were available to dump information on us without much actual research there were these books that were compendiums of knowledge known as encyclopedias. They were the internet before the internet happened.
Today I pulled out one of my favorite encyclopedias, the Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life, and opened to a random page and so I'm going to give a brief account of Ivoirians.
Ivoirians (ih-VWAHR-ee-uhns) are the people of the country Côte d'Ivoire. also known as the Ivory Coast, a smaller square shaped country in West Africa. The population there is at 20.6 million today and they speak over 60 different ethnic languages. French is the official language there and the official religions there are Islam and Christianity but there is a lot of local ethnic beliefs that intertwine with them.
The country received first contact from the Portuguese and the French established a colony there in 1893. It was named the ivory coast because of the ivory trade that flourished there but by the end of the 19th century the country was almost completely devoid of its elephant population.
The over 60 languages all belong to the Niger-Congo family and interestingly no one language (except French) is spoken by more than 23% of the country. Meaning French is the best means of communication between different groups in the country. Some of the more popular languages include: Akan, Mande', Gur (Voltaic), Kru, Dioula (the most widely spoken), Baoule', and Senoufo (Voltaic). With the wide variety of ethnic groups and languages in the country a wide variety of folklore and legends also will be found. "One of the most famous legends tell the story of how the Baoule people arrived in Côte d'Ivoire" (Gall 1998: 227). In their homeland of Ghana (bordering on the east) they held storage houses of grain but were attacked by other groups and were caught in famine. "Their queen, Abla Pokou, led her people to west into Côte d'Ivoire. Finding it impossible to cross the Comoe' river, the queen sacrificed her own child to the genies of the river, they in turn, in recognition of the gift, caused the trees to bend and form a bridge to a land of peace and safety" (Gall 1998: 227). Their name, Baoule', means "the little one dies".
It is really hard to talk about this country as a whole in a very cultural way because it is a lot like looking through a kaleidoscope there are many very different ethnic groups and so things like rites of passage, living conditions and family life would be very varied throughout the country. One overarching universal for the country is a definite male dominated society although politically they have been ruled by both kings and queens in their history and now have presidents but none as of yet have been female.
They have three official recognized dances: "the royal dance performed only by a king or tribal chief, the fetish dance performed by male initiates who have undergone initiation rites in the sacred forest, and the popular dance open to all including women" (Gall 1998: 228). The people of the Ivory Coast are expert weavers, woodworkers and sculptors and the Baoule' people are well known for making very intricately designed items. They are very specialized at making wood ceremonial masks for their dances and for other rituals. Many times these masks represent evil spirits such as a kplekple, which represents a horned beast and their most famous mask is the "fire-spitter" helmet mask.
There are a great many social concerns but most of them stem from a growing poverty level due to rapid increase in population and urbanization. They had a 2nd Civil War is 2011 that ended quickly but was a reaction to the results of the presidential election that year. They also have one of the highest occurrences of HIV/AIDS outbreak on that continent.
Here is something to try at home! A recipe for one of their popular dishes, Yassa.
http://www.congocookbook.com/chicken_recipes/poulet_yassa.html
References:
Worldmark. 1998. "Ivoirians". Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life. ed. Timothy L. Gall. vol. 1: (226-230). Detroit: Gale Research.
Today I pulled out one of my favorite encyclopedias, the Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life, and opened to a random page and so I'm going to give a brief account of Ivoirians.
Ivoirians (ih-VWAHR-ee-uhns) are the people of the country Côte d'Ivoire. also known as the Ivory Coast, a smaller square shaped country in West Africa. The population there is at 20.6 million today and they speak over 60 different ethnic languages. French is the official language there and the official religions there are Islam and Christianity but there is a lot of local ethnic beliefs that intertwine with them.
It is really hard to talk about this country as a whole in a very cultural way because it is a lot like looking through a kaleidoscope there are many very different ethnic groups and so things like rites of passage, living conditions and family life would be very varied throughout the country. One overarching universal for the country is a definite male dominated society although politically they have been ruled by both kings and queens in their history and now have presidents but none as of yet have been female.
Here is something to try at home! A recipe for one of their popular dishes, Yassa.
http://www.congocookbook.com/chicken_recipes/poulet_yassa.html
References:
Worldmark. 1998. "Ivoirians". Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life. ed. Timothy L. Gall. vol. 1: (226-230). Detroit: Gale Research.
Monday, May 13, 2013
Earthworks
Archaeology and Anthropology got their start in America largely due to a curiosity concerning the mysterious earthworks of the eastern side of North America. There were 1000s of these mounds ranging from New England out to Ohio and Illinois and south as far as Mississippi and down into northern Florida. They intrigued aspiring archaeologist/antiquarians such as our fourth president, Thomas Jefferson.
It wasn't until the late 1800s when a Division of Mound Exploration was created that we would begin to expound on our knowledge of the mounds. Prior to this organization's founding people had many different theories about who built these mounds. Some of the theories included: vanished or lost race that lived on the continent, a much earlier civilization that made contact with the Americas before Columbus (such as Atlantis or a near east nation), Mexican cultures that moved into the northern continent, or possibly the early ancestors of the Native Americans that had always made America their home. The last one, which would turn out to be correct, was largely dismissed as current knowledge of the native people's suggested them incapable of such works. Even the Book of Mormon (1830) mentions that at one point North America was populated by "a civilized culture" and makes reference to the Lost Ten Tribes. They believed that Jewish people from Mesopotamia (Jaredites and Israelites) settled in America but their civilizations were destroyed in 385AD.
Enter Cyrus Thomas a biologist from Illinois who was the first to head the Division of Mound Exploration. He created a team of scientists who would be some of the first recognized American archaeologists to investigate the mounds and try to discover once and for all the identity of their creators. There was no way an exhaustive study could be made of the 1000+ mounds spread all across eastern North America so they created a study of a representative sample of the four distinct types of mounds. The mound types were animal effigy (mounds in the shapes of animals), cone-shaped, flat top and geometric design.
A report completed in 1894 for the Bureau of Ethnology documented the results including drawings, maps, and an extensive amount of recovered artifact data. The biggest conclusion was that these works were most definitely created by the ancestors of present day Native Americans. The impact of this was to prove that Native Americans were not as "savage" or unintelligent as many scientists had previously implied. It would take ingenuity on par with many other civilized societies to create such works. They also concluded that these mounds had multiple uses. The most important uses found in the study were to be burial sites for important members of the tribe, to elevate temples and buildings of importance and to designate and note sacred locations on the landscape.
One mound that was really of importance to Thomas was the Cahokia (Monk's) Mound. It was the largest earthen work found in North America. "The dimensions of the base are: from north to south 1,080 feet; from east to west 710 feet. The area of the base is about 16 acres" (Thomas 1907). Many scientists were in awe of the sheer magnitude of the structure. Even though it was widely agreed that these structures were made by the ancestors of Native Americans the new question became how? Native Americans never had beasts of burden and their technology level didn't call for any ways to help in the creation of these mounds.
Gerard Fowke would help to establish ideas of the amount of time needed to build the mound in Cahokia. His efforts would prove to be some of the first in Applied (or Experimental) Archaeology. This would be the act of trying to recreate artifacts or structures using only the tools known to have been available at the time they were originally made. "As the contents of Cahokia's mound are equal to 420 times those of Mr. Fowke's assumed tumulus, it would require the hundred persons, laboring in the same way, to work every day for forty-eight years to construct the great tumulus" (Thomas 1907). This vast amount of time made early archaeologists assume that it was not a structure created all at once but instead a structure that was built in stages. Artifact evidence found within the context in different strata help to support this theory.
The mound builder society is still extensively researched today and it is widely unknown to say which Native American tribes are derived from that society. "Part of the Mound Builders may have gone south (Cherokee?) and part of them may have gone west (Mandan?) while part may have remained in New England (Iroquois?)" (Allison 1927).
References
Allison, Vernon C. 1927. The Mound Builders: Whence and When. American Anthropologist. 29: 670-689.
Marks, David. 1831. Mormons, Mastodons and Mound-Builders. The Spalding Research Project. http://solomonspalding.com/SRP/saga2/sagawt0b.htm. Accessed May 13th, 2013.
Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History. 2011. The Moundbuilders of North America. Podcast from 19th Century Anthropology Collections. Dur. 5:12. Accessed May 13th, 2013.
Thomas, Cyrus 19907. Cahokia or Monk's Mound. American Anthropologist. 7: 362-365.
Places to Visit:
Cahokia: http://www.cahokiamounds.org/visit/
A mound in eastern Tennessee
Cyrus Thomas (July 27th, 1825-June 26th, 1910)
Enter Cyrus Thomas a biologist from Illinois who was the first to head the Division of Mound Exploration. He created a team of scientists who would be some of the first recognized American archaeologists to investigate the mounds and try to discover once and for all the identity of their creators. There was no way an exhaustive study could be made of the 1000+ mounds spread all across eastern North America so they created a study of a representative sample of the four distinct types of mounds. The mound types were animal effigy (mounds in the shapes of animals), cone-shaped, flat top and geometric design.
A report completed in 1894 for the Bureau of Ethnology documented the results including drawings, maps, and an extensive amount of recovered artifact data. The biggest conclusion was that these works were most definitely created by the ancestors of present day Native Americans. The impact of this was to prove that Native Americans were not as "savage" or unintelligent as many scientists had previously implied. It would take ingenuity on par with many other civilized societies to create such works. They also concluded that these mounds had multiple uses. The most important uses found in the study were to be burial sites for important members of the tribe, to elevate temples and buildings of importance and to designate and note sacred locations on the landscape.
An artistic representation of Monk's Mound
An archaeological site map of Cahokia
Gerard Fowke would help to establish ideas of the amount of time needed to build the mound in Cahokia. His efforts would prove to be some of the first in Applied (or Experimental) Archaeology. This would be the act of trying to recreate artifacts or structures using only the tools known to have been available at the time they were originally made. "As the contents of Cahokia's mound are equal to 420 times those of Mr. Fowke's assumed tumulus, it would require the hundred persons, laboring in the same way, to work every day for forty-eight years to construct the great tumulus" (Thomas 1907). This vast amount of time made early archaeologists assume that it was not a structure created all at once but instead a structure that was built in stages. Artifact evidence found within the context in different strata help to support this theory.
The mound builder society is still extensively researched today and it is widely unknown to say which Native American tribes are derived from that society. "Part of the Mound Builders may have gone south (Cherokee?) and part of them may have gone west (Mandan?) while part may have remained in New England (Iroquois?)" (Allison 1927).
References
Allison, Vernon C. 1927. The Mound Builders: Whence and When. American Anthropologist. 29: 670-689.
Marks, David. 1831. Mormons, Mastodons and Mound-Builders. The Spalding Research Project. http://solomonspalding.com/SRP/saga2/sagawt0b.htm. Accessed May 13th, 2013.
Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History. 2011. The Moundbuilders of North America. Podcast from 19th Century Anthropology Collections. Dur. 5:12. Accessed May 13th, 2013.
Thomas, Cyrus 19907. Cahokia or Monk's Mound. American Anthropologist. 7: 362-365.
Places to Visit:
Cahokia: http://www.cahokiamounds.org/visit/
Thursday, May 2, 2013
Climate Controlled Language
Today, I tread gingerly into a discussion of the realm of anthropology I know the least about, Biological Anthropology. Biological (or Physical) anthropology is the subfield that looks at human (and near human) biology in order to better understand how we evolved into the beings we are today. It's scope is long reaching and also ties back into the other subfields. One example would be how the biological aspects of our throat and mouth brought about the complexities of language. "Sounds are created by the vibration of an object and transmitted through some medium, which in turn vibrates our eardrum. Brains differentiate, categorize and interpret these vibrations" (Achterberg and Piece 2011). So to create the complex sounds that create language our anatomy had to be very specific and determined.
Interesting new research suggests that some differences in language creation might be effected by climate. "The theory is that people in warmer climates generally spend more time outdoors and communicate at a distance more often than people in colder climates. It is presumably adaptive in such climates to use syllables and sounds that are more easily heard and recognized" (Ember and Ember 2008). People in colder climates possibly spend more time "huddled together" and thus do not need as distinct or audible syllables and sounds. "Using cross-cultural data from 60 or more societies, Robert Munroe and colleagues (1996) presented evidence that societies in warm to moderate climates have a significantly higher percentage of consonant-vowel syllables in their languages, as compared with societies in colder climates" (Ember and Ember 2008). The higher use of the CV syllable is due to it's more audible quality over distance.
Sonority is the higher presence of vowels over consonants in syllables. Vowels tend to help with recognizability and audibility. Although many other researchers suggest the warmth of the climate is what effects the sonority level, Ember and Ember (2008) suggest it is actually the coldness of the climate that really matters.
The scatterplot shows the average sonority scores for the number of cold months given, with areas with more cold months having higher average sonority scores.
Ember and Ember (2008) do respond to additional predictors of sonority. The econiche also has a bearing on the average sonority. For example, communication would be different in a dense tropical forest as opposed to an open field even if their climates were exactly the same. (Ember and Ember 2008). They also suggested that in societies with looser sexual constraints (ie greater frequency of premarital and extramarital sex) there was a greater average sonority despite the climate. They use a box chart to show that climate has less effect in these situations.
In the end they feel like sonority is definitely influenced, if not completely determined, by climate. High sonority is created by cold and harsh terrains and is influenced by sexual expressiveness but it is decreased and/or inhibited by movement into a more suitable econiche.
References:
Achterberg, Jerusha T. and Pierce, Anthony J. 2011. Creation of an Aural Map: Convergence of Music and Biological Anthropology Methodologies. Anthropology News. (52, 1): 3-6.
Ember, Carol R. and Ember, Melvin. 2007. Climate, Econiche, and Sexuality: Influences on Sonority in Language. American Anthropologist. (109, 1): 180-185.
Munroe, Robert L. 1996. Cross-Cultural Correlates of the Consonant-Vowel (CV) Syllable. Cross-Cultural Research. 30: 60-83.
Interesting new research suggests that some differences in language creation might be effected by climate. "The theory is that people in warmer climates generally spend more time outdoors and communicate at a distance more often than people in colder climates. It is presumably adaptive in such climates to use syllables and sounds that are more easily heard and recognized" (Ember and Ember 2008). People in colder climates possibly spend more time "huddled together" and thus do not need as distinct or audible syllables and sounds. "Using cross-cultural data from 60 or more societies, Robert Munroe and colleagues (1996) presented evidence that societies in warm to moderate climates have a significantly higher percentage of consonant-vowel syllables in their languages, as compared with societies in colder climates" (Ember and Ember 2008). The higher use of the CV syllable is due to it's more audible quality over distance.
Sonority is the higher presence of vowels over consonants in syllables. Vowels tend to help with recognizability and audibility. Although many other researchers suggest the warmth of the climate is what effects the sonority level, Ember and Ember (2008) suggest it is actually the coldness of the climate that really matters.
The scatterplot shows the average sonority scores for the number of cold months given, with areas with more cold months having higher average sonority scores.
Ember and Ember (2008) do respond to additional predictors of sonority. The econiche also has a bearing on the average sonority. For example, communication would be different in a dense tropical forest as opposed to an open field even if their climates were exactly the same. (Ember and Ember 2008). They also suggested that in societies with looser sexual constraints (ie greater frequency of premarital and extramarital sex) there was a greater average sonority despite the climate. They use a box chart to show that climate has less effect in these situations.
In the end they feel like sonority is definitely influenced, if not completely determined, by climate. High sonority is created by cold and harsh terrains and is influenced by sexual expressiveness but it is decreased and/or inhibited by movement into a more suitable econiche.
References:
Achterberg, Jerusha T. and Pierce, Anthony J. 2011. Creation of an Aural Map: Convergence of Music and Biological Anthropology Methodologies. Anthropology News. (52, 1): 3-6.
Ember, Carol R. and Ember, Melvin. 2007. Climate, Econiche, and Sexuality: Influences on Sonority in Language. American Anthropologist. (109, 1): 180-185.
Munroe, Robert L. 1996. Cross-Cultural Correlates of the Consonant-Vowel (CV) Syllable. Cross-Cultural Research. 30: 60-83.
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